https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog Wed, 03 June 2026 13:59:32 Wed, 03 June 2026 13:59:32 Rum is one of the world’s most diverse and misunderstood spirits categories. From crystal-clear styles to almost black bottlings, colour can often tell you surprisingly little about what’s actually in the glass. In this article, drinks writer Mike Gibson explores the confusing world of light, golden and dark rum and why appearances can be deceptive.    When it comes to aged spirits, looks can be deceiving, and in arguably no category is this truer than rum. Unlike whisky or brandy, the casual consumer has come to know rum through styles based on appearance rather than age. On supermarket shelves or online, bottles are often grouped into light, golden or dark categories. And anyone with first-hand knowledge of the category can attest, that’s very rarely an accurate representation of either production methods or flavour.  Whisky has to be aged in casks to be called whisky, but that’s not the case for rum, which can be aged for decades or no time at all, and whose appearance can run the gamut from totally colourless to amber or deep brown, in some cases so dark as to be almost black.  Rightly or wrongly, many drinkers still judge a spirit’s potential age and quality by its colour. But in rum, that can be a misnomer for a few reasons. In the same way that a long-aged whisky could be lighter in colour than one aged for only three years in a particularly active cask, the same is true for rum, but with the added confusion of charcoal filtration and our old friend E150, a caramel colour, helping to cloud the optics.  For this and a host of other reasons, it’s becoming increasingly obvious that colour alone tells the drinker very little about what to expect from a rum. Age can offer one useful clue, but only alongside a wider understanding of production choices such as raw material, distillation method, cask type and maturation conditions.  To understand why colour can be misleading in rum, it helps to start with spirits that haven’t seen a cask at all.    The world’s unaged rums  From the Caribbean to Latin America, and increasingly in emerging rum-producing countries too, a large amount of the rum sold around the world is distilled and bottled without ageing.  This is true of the vast majority of cachaça (Brazil’s native sugarcane juice spirit), much of rhum agricole (made from fresh sugarcane juice in Martinique, Guadeloupe and Madeira) and a fair amount of Caribbean molasses rum too, including styles like Overproof Jamaican Rum.  These rums differ wildly in both raw material (the processing or otherwise of the sugarcane), distillation (the use of pot stills vs column distillation) and the style the producer is going for. In all cases, though, they’re united by the lack of influence from wood, leaning into the fresh, raw and grassy character of the sugarcane itself.  And with no wood, there’s nothing to add any colour. Genuine unaged rums will generally be as clear as vodka, so if you see a rum without any visible colour, there’s a good chance it will sit on the brighter and fresher side of the scale.  However...    Light (and lightly aged) rums  In many rum heartlands, there are rums aged in oak casks after distillation, but only for a relatively short time, or in casks selected to give minimal wood influence to the finished spirit.  Bacardi Carta Blanca, for example, is one of the go-to Daiquiri rums for bartenders and consumers around the world. Though aged for three years under Cuba’s strict regulations, it remains pale in appearance and much closer in flavour to an unaged rum than to a long-aged or heavily ‘dark’ style.  Another example is Diplomático Planas. The Venezuelan producer ages the rum for six years before filtering it through charcoal prior to bottling, removing almost all of its colour. Pick it up off the shelf and it may look analogous to an unaged rum, but the flavour still carries a decent amount of wood influence. The exception that proves the rule, perhaps.    ‘Golden’ rums  Golden rum is another potentially misleading term. While some golden rums get their colour naturally through cask ageing, others may use caramel colour or added flavourings, making colour alone an unreliable guide to flavour or age.  Walk into the golden rum section of a supermarket or retailer and you’ll find everything from properly matured rums like Appleton 8 Year Old from Jamaica or Havana Club Especial from Cuba, alongside sourced blends bottled for consistency by British or American brands, as well as spiced rums flavoured with vanilla, spices and other ingredients.  For rums whose flavour comes solely from distillation and maturation, longer ageing in cask tends to bring notes of dried fruit, nuts and baking spice. But this is also a useful place to dispel the idea that rum has no rules. In reality, rum is governed by legal definitions and standards of identity, and while these vary from one country or territory to another, they determine what can be made, what can be added and what may still be labelled as rum.  Suffice to say, even when a rum has spent time in cask, its colour may not come exclusively from maturation. Many producers use a small amount of caramel colour to keep appearance consistent from batch to batch, which means colour can still be a poor guide to wood influence. At the darker end of the spectrum, some styles may also derive colour and flavour from molasses or other additions rather than cask ageing alone. In fact, some products in this portion of the market, particularly those heavily altered with flavourings or additives, may not legally qualify to be sold as rum in certain countries at all. Likewise, a spiced rum’s flavour is going to be markedly more influenced by the added components the producer chooses to flavour it with than by a cask, anyway.    The darkest of the dark  Finally, we get to the so-called ‘dark’ rum. In this category you’ll find everything from traditionally matured rums to heavily flavoured or spiced styles, products that can differ wildly in both production and flavour.  Some may use E150a caramel colour or added sugar to shape the final appearance and profile of the spirit, meaning a darker colour doesn’t necessarily point to longer ageing or greater cask influence.  And when we get to some of the darkest expressions on the market, the almost black appearance of the liquid is, it’s fair to say, often less about the age of the rums used in the blend than additions such as molasses and other stylistic choices made by the producer.    How to judge rum by colour  Given all the above, it’s fairly obvious that a rum’s colour is never a reliable gauge of style, flavour or age, certainly not across the category as a whole.  The safer bet is to judge by age where an age statement is available, or if not, to read into the distillery or blender, or the production methods permitted (or prohibited) by the country of origin.   These will give the drinker a clearer picture of whether a rum will be fresh and vibrant, deep and rich, lightly sweet or bone-dry. It should also convey the likely influence of its raw materials, production choices like yeast strains and length of fermentation, distillation in pot stills, column stills or a blend of both, and the location and climate in which it’s matured.    Drinking different rum styles  In terms of drinking and enjoying these rums, sipping neat is usually the best place to start. It gives the clearest sense of the producer’s intended style, whether that’s a long-aged Caribbean rum, a rich Latin American style with some subtle sweetness, or the funk of a Jamaican molasses rum or a green and grassy rhum agricole made from fresh sugarcane juice.  Rum shines in cocktails, though, perhaps most notably the Daiquiri. Made simply with rum, lime and sugar syrup, it’s an immediately refreshing drink that still allows its hero component’s character to shine through. A light, crisp Cuban-style rum is the classic choice, but everything from rhum agricole to overproof Jamaican rum can work brilliantly in the format.  Longer-aged rums, meanwhile, make excellent twists on drinks like the Manhattan or Old Fashioned, as well as classics such as the El Presidente or modern cocktails like the 100 Year Old Cigar (with absinthe and Benedictine).  Because of Cuba’s singular history with early bartending, many classic rum cocktail recipes will suggest aged Cuban rums, but these can be subbed for aged rums from anywhere in the world, including premium expressions of blended aged rums by producers in the UK.  Elsewhere, Barbados’s bold molasses rums are ideal in a Rum Punch or Corn n’ Oil, while Jamaican and blended Caribbean rums are often the go-to for Tiki classics like the Mai Tai or Jungle Bird.  However it’s served, rum is an esoteric spirit that rewards a bit of knowledge and curiosity on the part of the consumer. Its looks may be particularly deceptive on occasion, but understanding a little about production, ageing and regional styles can completely transform the way you approach the category. And while colour alone may not always tell you very much, opting for a distillery or blender you trust to give a clear expression of style and production is always likely to result in a great drink.      About the author  Mike Gibson is a freelance drinks writer, editorial and communications consultant specialising in drinks, hospitality and travel. Formerly Head of Content and Communications at The Whisky Exchange and Editorial Director at Foodism, he has worked across editorial strategy, brand communications and drinks marketing for retailers, agencies and drinks brands. Alongside whisky, he loves Caribbean rum, vintage Champagne, white Burgundy, tasting menus and Neapolitan pizza.    Additional reading     https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/light-rum-vs-dark-rum-is-there-a-difference https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/light-rum-vs-dark-rum-is-there-a-difference Wed, 03 June 2026 13:59:32 Inspired by a recent WSET webinar with brewer, beer judge and Budvar Global Brand Ambassador, Radim Zvánovec, this article explores the traditions and philosophies that define Czech lager, from decoction mashing and long maturation to the art of pouring beer. You can watch the full webinar recording on the WSET Global Events Hub.    One of the first things to understand about Czech lager is that it is not built around speed.  In many modern breweries, efficiency is a priority. Beer moves quickly from grain to glass, fermentation is accelerated and tank turnover is carefully managed. Czech lager often follows a different approach: the beer is ready when it's ready.  Patience serves a practical purpose. Long, cold maturation allows sulphur compounds to reduce, carbonation to integrate gradually and proteins and polyphenols to fall out of suspension, clarifying the beer naturally over time. As the beer matures, flavours soften and become more integrated.  The result is a style shaped as much by time as by ingredients. Rather than seeking intensity, Czech brewers have traditionally allowed fermentation and maturation to proceed at their own pace, giving the beer time to develop before it reaches the glass.    How decoction mashing shapes Czech lager flavour  For all the attention paid to hops in lager brewing, much of Czech lager's distinctive character comes from malt.  A key part of that flavour development happens during decoction mashing, a traditional brewing method still used by many Czech breweries today. Part of the mash is transferred into a separate vessel, boiled and then returned to the main mash. Historically, this process helped brewers work with less modified malts. Today, many brewers continue to use it because of the flavour and texture it can contribute to the finished beer.  Boiling part of the mash triggers Maillard reactions between sugars and amino acids, producing the deep bready, crust-like notes often associated with Czech lager. The same reaction occurs when bread bakes or steak sears. These flavours are not always immediately apparent, often emerging as notes of bread crust, toast and malt richness. Brewers sometimes refer to this as "brewhouse flavour" – a layered malt complexity that cannot be recreated simply by adding speciality malts later in the process. Decoction mashing requires additional time and energy, but many Czech brewers consider the extra effort worthwhile for the character it can bring to the beer.    Brewing low and slow  Temperature and time shape Czech lager at every stage.  Fermentation is typically carried out below 10°C, allowing the yeast to work slowly and steadily. Depending on the beer, this stage may last 10 to 12 days before the lager enters its next phase: maturation.  This stage, known as lagering, is where Czech brewing becomes especially distinctive. The beer is stored at near-freezing temperatures for an extended period, allowing carbonation to develop naturally and flavours to evolve gradually. As it matures, sulphur compounds diminish and the different elements of the beer begin to come together.  Many brewers describe naturally carbonated lager as softer and creamier in texture than beer carbonated artificially. At the same time, the beer continues to change in ways that are not always fully understood. Thousands of flavour compounds interact during maturation, and brewers acknowledge there is still some mystery within the process. As one brewer once asked: if every flavour compound in a beer could be separated and then rebuilt exactly, would it still taste the same?    Why Czech brewers care so much about foam  Outside the Czech Republic, foam is often treated as cosmetic. In Czech beer culture, it is functional.  Dense, silky foam protects beer from oxidation, stabilises carbonation and softens bitterness. It preserves aroma and changes the texture of the beer itself. A properly poured Czech lager should evolve as it is consumed, remaining fresh and balanced until the final sip.  That foam, known in Czech as pěna, is one of the defining features of Czech beer service. The goal is not towering dryness or large bubbles, but a wet, velvety foam containing more beer within its structure. This creates a softer mouthfeel and enhances the perception of malt sweetness and body.  The effect can be surprisingly dramatic. The same lager, poured differently, can feel like two entirely different beers.    The tapster as craftsperson  In the Czech Republic, pouring beer is treated with the same seriousness as brewing it.  The výčepní, or tapster, is not simply a bartender. They are responsible for the final expression of the beer. Their reputation can matter as much as the brewery’s itself.  A skilled tapster understands foam structure, carbonation, pouring speed, glass temperature and line hygiene. They know how to “read” both the beer and the guest standing in front of them.  The same attention given to pouring can be seen throughout the service process.  Glasses are commonly washed by hand to ensure perfect cleanliness. They are chilled carefully before pouring so the beer remains stable and carbon dioxide does not escape too quickly. Beer lines are flushed daily with water rather than left filled overnight.  Even the taps themselves are different. Traditional Czech side-pull taps allow much finer control over foam texture and flow rate than standard bar taps, and inside the nozzle sits a small screen that smooths the bubbles into dense, creamy foam.    Why Czech beer is poured in different ways  Czech pouring styles reveal just how much serving technique can shape flavour.  The most common pour is hladinka, the benchmark Czech lager serve, combining beer with a thick cap of creamy foam for balance and freshness.  Then there is šnyt, a smaller beer with proportionally more foam, often enjoyed quickly while waiting for a train or settling a tab.  Perhaps the most surprising is mlíko, a glass made almost entirely of wet foam. For many first-time visitors, it looks absurd. Then they drink it. Because the foam contains less carbonation, the beer feels softer, sweeter and remarkably refreshing. In Czech pubs, it is sometimes jokingly described as the Czech equivalent of an espresso shot.  The layered řezané pour takes things even further, combining pale and dark lagers in distinct layers. Drunk from top to bottom, it unfolds almost like a progression through different beer styles, moving from pale lager into amber notes before finishing in dark malt richness.    The hallmarks of Czech lager  Czech beer styles are not typically defined by extremes.  Even dark lagers tend to emphasise balance rather than pronounced roast character. Amber lagers showcase malt complexity without excessive weight, while pale lagers combine noticeable bitterness with freshness.  Decoction mashing, expressive yeast strains, soft water, extended maturation and careful pouring all contribute to the character of Czech lager. Together, these elements help create beers that are known for their balance, texture and consistency.  That may be why Czech lager can seem straightforward at first glance. Behind it lies considerable technical expertise, tradition and patience.  Or, as Radim puts it, “We are just slaves for the yeast.”      About the author Radim Zvánovec is Global Brand Ambassador at Budvar, as well as a brewer and international beer judge. Originally from České Budějovice (Budweis) in the Czech Republic, he grew up surrounded by one of the world’s most celebrated beer cultures. After many years working in hospitality, Radim developed a deeper appreciation for the craftsmanship behind beer, discovering that its apparent simplicity hides remarkable precision and care. This curiosity led him into brewing, beer education and sensory analysis. Today, Radim works internationally to share the traditions, techniques and cultural heritage that define Czech lager.     Additional reading Why foam matters in beer From German lagers to Citra IPAs – the story of American beer Exploring the history of Belgian beer   https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/the-land-of-foam-and-patience-a-journey-into-czech-beer https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/the-land-of-foam-and-patience-a-journey-into-czech-beer Mon, 01 June 2026 16:21:35 Inspired by a WSET webinar with Ana María Martín DipWSET, co-founder of the Canarias Wine Academy. Watch the webinar recording on the WSET Events Hub.    Few wine regions challenge expectations quite like the Canary Islands.  Located just 100 kilometres from the coast of Africa and more than 1,000 kilometres from mainland Spain, this Atlantic archipelago is home to some of the most dramatic vineyard landscapes in the world. Vines grow in volcanic ash, on steep terraces, across rugged mountainsides and at elevations that reach higher than anywhere else in Europe.  Yet the vineyards are only part of the story. The Canary Islands are home to ungrafted vines, rare grape varieties and vineyard traditions that have disappeared from many other wine regions. Centuries of isolation have helped preserve both plant material and growing practices, creating a wine culture that remains distinct within Spain and beyond.  Today, the islands are gaining international attention for wines shaped by volcanic soils, Atlantic influences and a remarkable diversity of native grape varieties.    A wine region shaped by isolation  The Canary Islands are one of Spain’s autonomous communities and consist of eight volcanic islands scattered across the Atlantic Ocean.  Their geographical position has always been both an advantage and a challenge. While proximity to Africa influences the climate, centuries of separation from mainland Europe helped preserve traditions, grape varieties and vineyard material that disappeared elsewhere.  Wine arrived with Spanish and Portuguese settlers during the fifteenth century. Viticulture expanded rapidly and, by the sixteenth century, Canary Islands wines were being exported throughout northern Europe. Demand was particularly strong in England, where the islands developed an important trading relationship.  The connection remains visible today. Canary Wharf in London takes its name from the ships that arrived carrying goods from the archipelago, including wine.  For a period, Canary Islands wine enjoyed extraordinary prestige. Then came changing trade routes, political tensions, growing competition from fortified wines such as Port and Madeira, and natural disasters that disrupted key export routes.  As a result, the region entered a long period of decline.  The fortunes of Canary Islands wine have changed considerably in recent decades. Producers have worked to recover native varieties, restore old vineyards and focus on quality. Growing international interest in volcanic wines has helped bring renewed attention to the region.    Why volcanic landscapes tell only part of the story  Volcanic origin is often the first thing people associate with the Canary Islands, but the islands' growing conditions are shaped by a combination of factors.  Trade winds play a crucial role. Known locally as alisios, these winds bring moisture that becomes trapped by the islands’ mountainous terrain, forming a layer of cloud known as the sea of clouds. This natural phenomenon moderates temperatures, slows ripening and helps preserve acidity.  The Canary Current provides another cooling influence, creating conditions that are far milder than many would expect at this latitude.  Altitude adds further complexity. Vineyards can be found close to sea level and at elevations reaching 1,700 metres above sea level. Some of Europe's highest vineyards are located on the islands, creating an extraordinary range of mesoclimates across a relatively small area.  Image credit: Bodegas Tajinaste   Rainfall can vary dramatically too. Some vineyard sites receive very little precipitation, while others benefit from substantially higher rainfall depending on altitude and exposure.  The result is a region that cannot be reduced to a single climate profile. Every island, and often every valley, tells a different story.    The remarkable survival of ungrafted vines  One of the defining features of Canary Islands viticulture is the number of ungrafted vines that remain in production today.  The islands largely escaped the devastation caused by phylloxera, allowing historic plant material to survive. Some vineyards still contain descendants of vines planted centuries ago.  While isolated outbreaks have been identified in small, tightly controlled areas, strict quarantine measures and rapid intervention have helped prevent wider spread. As a result, ungrafted vineyards remain one of the defining features of Canary Islands viticulture.  This continuity has helped preserve an extraordinary diversity of indigenous grape varieties, many of which are found nowhere else in the world.    Vineyard traditions found nowhere else  One of the first lessons in understanding Canary Islands wine is recognising that the vineyards rarely look like anyone expects.  Across the archipelago, growers have developed training systems designed to cope with volcanic soils, wind exposure, steep terrain and limited water availability. The most famous example is found in Lanzarote's La Geria region. Following volcanic eruptions that covered the landscape with deep layers of ash, growers adapted by digging individual pits into the volcanic material until they reached fertile soil below. Stone walls were built around each vine to provide shelter from the wind, creating a landscape that looks almost lunar.  Elsewhere, vines may be trained close to the ground in rastras systems to reduce wind exposure and preserve soil moisture. In Tenerife's Valle de La Orotava, growers developed one of the world's most distinctive training methods: cordón trenzado. Long vine canes are braided together, sometimes extending for dozens of metres. Originally, this system helped manage vigorous growth while allowing farmers to cultivate crops beneath the vines. It remains one of the most visually striking expressions of traditional viticulture anywhere in the world.  Across many islands, steep slopes and terraces mean that vineyard work is still carried out largely by hand. Mechanisation is often impossible, making this a compelling example of what is sometimes described as heroic viticulture, where growing grapes demands persistence, ingenuity and physical effort.    Native grapes with stories that travelled the world  The Canary Islands are home to more than 35 recognised native grape varieties.  Among red grapes, Listán Negro remains the most widely planted. It produces wines with red fruit character, peppery notes and moderate tannins. Depending on the producer and site, it can be used to make everything from fresh, approachable wines to more structured styles with ageing potential.  One of the most historically significant varieties is Listán Prieto.  After arriving from mainland Spain and becoming established in the Canary Islands, it travelled onwards with missionaries to the Americas. There it became known under different names, including Mission in California and País in Chile. Its journey illustrates the role the Canary Islands played in the spread of grape varieties across the Atlantic.  Among white grapes, Listán Blanco dominates plantings. Although genetically identical to Palomino Fino, the variety expresses itself differently in the islands' growing conditions, often producing wines with higher acidity and greater aromatic intensity.  Malvasía Volcánica is another flagship variety, particularly associated with Lanzarote. Alongside other local grapes such as Vijariego, Marmajuelo, Gual and Albillo Criollo, it contributes to the remarkable diversity of grape varieties found across the islands.    Wine styles of the Canary Islands  The diversity of vineyard sites and grape varieties translates into an equally diverse range of wines.  Fresh white wines are among the region's signatures. Many are made for early drinking, while others gain texture and complexity through lees ageing or oak maturation.  Red wines range from light and vibrant styles to more structured examples made from varieties such as Tintilla, Baboso Negro and Negramoll.  Rosé wines are produced throughout the islands, while sparkling wine is becoming increasingly important. Producers use the traditional method, often taking advantage of high-altitude vineyards where naturally fresh base wines can be produced.  Sweet wines also remain an important part of the region's winemaking heritage.  For centuries, Malvasía wines from the Canary Islands were celebrated across Europe. Today, producers continue that tradition with both youthful, fruit-driven sweet wines and more complex styles aged in oak, developing notes of honey, dried fruit and spice. Some of these wines are capable of developing further complexity with bottle age.    The Canary Islands today  The Canary Islands are often introduced as a volcanic wine region. The description is accurate, but it only scratches the surface.  Across the archipelago, growers have adapted to volcanic soils, limited water availability, strong winds and steep terrain. They developed vineyard systems suited to local conditions, preserved historic plant material and maintained grape varieties that disappeared elsewhere.  From the stone-lined pits of Lanzarote's La Geria to the braided vines of Valle de La Orotava, the islands offer a remarkable example of how geography can shape viticulture. Today, they are recognised for their native grape varieties, ungrafted vines and distinctive vineyard landscapes.     Additional reading Exploring the wines of Jumilla Ukrainian wine: past, present and future A guide to Armenian wines https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/the-canary-islands-exploring-a-unique-volcanic-wine-region https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/the-canary-islands-exploring-a-unique-volcanic-wine-region Fri, 29 May 2026 14:56:26 From ruby and tawny to vintage and white styles, Port is one of the world’s most historic and distinctive fortified wines. But how did this wine from northern Portugal become so closely tied to British drinking culture and what makes the different styles taste the way they do?  In this guide, award-winning drinks writer Henry Jeffreys explores the history of Port, how it is made and the key styles to know, from everyday ruby Port to long-aged vintage expressions.    Port is a fortified wine from northern Portugal. It owes its existence to Britain's fractious relationship with its neighbour, France. Since the 12th century, wine in England had come from Bordeaux. But when William III and Mary came to the throne in 1688 in the so-called Glorious Revolution, it ushered in a period of on-and-off conflict that would continue until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.  Wine shipped from France became subject to high taxation. By 1698, duty on French wine was £47 a cask when the wine itself cost only £12. A new source of affordable wine had to be found, so England turned to its oldest ally, Portugal. Merchants began shipping wine from Porto in the north of the country. This arrangement was cemented with the signing of the Methuen Treaty in 1703, which set the duty on Portuguese wine at a third of that on French wine.  The only problem was that customers back home didn't much like the thin red wine made around the city. There was even a poem from 1693 by Richard Ames titled Anything but Port. To find something more to English tastes, intrepid merchants headed up the river into the Douro valley, where summers were far hotter.  The Douro region, Portugal   Pioneering merchants included Job Bearsley from London, who founded a firm in 1692 that would become Taylor's. The robust up-country wine was much more to English tastes. Merchants bought wine from growers and shipped it down the treacherous rapids of the Douro river to Vila Nova de Gaia, across the river from Porto. Their warehouses, known as lodges, are still there to this day. Here they would fortify the finished wine with brandy and ship it off to England. The aim was to help it travel better but customers also liked a strong wine. At this stage, most port would have been dry. George Robinson, in his 1754 book Port, complained of a grower who "is in the habit of checking fermentation of the wines too soon, by putting brandy into them while still fermenting; a practice which must be considered DIABOLICAL."  In the mid-18th century, the mainly British merchants fell out with the Portuguese growers. Both parties accused the other of adulterating the wine with elderberries or wine from outside the region. The merchants refused to buy, so the growers enlisted the help of the Prime Minister of Portugal, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, later the Marquess of Pombal. In 1756, he formed the Companhia Geral da Agricultura e Vinhos do Alto Douro, which would buy all the wine, set the price, and sell it on to the shippers. Crucially, Pombal also demarcated the boundaries of the port region.  Port became immensely popular in Georgian England. The wine would be shipped over in cask and then bottled. Port lovers discovered that the fiery, strong liquid did something magical after years in the bottle, and so developed the cult of drinking long-aged wines. In the 1820 vintage the grapes became so ripe and full of sugar that they could not ferment fully. The resulting sweet wines were a sensation. To replicate the style, producers began adding brandy sooner to arrest fermentation. But not everyone approved. One merchant, Joseph James Forrester, wrote a paper in 1844 complaining that port had become a "nauseous, fiery compound of sweets, colours and alcohol." Forrester is one of the giants of port: he mapped the Douro river, and catalogued the different grape varieties. Eventually, however, the sweet style won out.  Port was popular with all sections of society in Victorian Britain: there was vintage port for the rich and cheap ruby port, often drunk with lemonade in pubs. By the mid-19th century, around 90 per cent of the wine drunk in Britain was either port or sherry.  But hard times were coming. In the 1870s, the phylloxera louse arrived in the Douro and destroyed the vineyards. The region replanted and recovered, only to be hit by the great disasters of the 20th century: the two World Wars and the Depression. From 1928 to 1970, Portugal was ruled by the authoritarian dictator António de Oliveira Salazar, and the country became a backwater. The industry saw some great vintages, such as the legendary 1963, but it proved hard to make money, and many old family firms sold up.  Portugal joining the EEC in 1986 brought an end the restrictive practices that had plagued the industry. In 1991, producers were allowed to buy aguardente (brandy) on the open market rather than from the state monopoly. Despite consolidation, many old family companies survived such as the Symington group, which owns Graham's among others, and Taylor, Fladgate and Yeatman.  Changing tastes in the 20th century favoured lighter wines. In the 1990s and 2000s, many vineyards were turned over to table wine production as the market for cheaper ports declined. According to shippers, however, the market for more premium styles is holding up.  As one of the world's hottest wine regions, the changing climate poses a particular challenge in the Douro. Producers are seeking out higher-altitude vineyards and researching more heat-resistant grape varieties. To help address this, Taylor's founded the Porto Protocol, an organisation dedicated to finding solutions to these problems.    How Port Is Made  Port is made from very ripe black grapes such as Touriga Nacional and Touriga Franca. Dozens of varieties are permitted. Small amounts of port are also made from white grapes. The grapes are crushed, sometimes by foot, to extract as much tannin and colour as possible. After two or three days when about half the sugar has turned to alcohol, grape brandy called aguardente is added, which kills the yeast and leaves a sweet wine of around 20% alcohol. Depending on the quality, this wine will be used in ruby, tawny, or vintage port (see definitions below).   Port styles explained  Ruby: The most basic style, usually aged in large wooden vats for two or three years before bottling.  Late Bottled Vintage (LBV): From a single year, but aged for up to six years in wood, so it is ready to drink once bottled. Some are bottled unfiltered and can age surprisingly well.  Vintage Port: Only in exceptional years does a producer "declare" a vintage. It comes from the top vineyards and is bottled after just two years of ageing. In the past, vintage ports required at least 20 years in bottle, but they are now accessible much younger. They should be decanted, as they throw a sediment.  Single Quinta Port: In years not good enough for a full vintage declaration, producers release a wine under a single estate label. These offer exceptional value and mature more quickly.  Tawny Port: Aged longer in barrel with oxygen contact until the wine loses its red colour and takes on a nutty, amber quality. Usually sold with average-age statements such as 10, 20, or 40 years old. Vintage tawnies are known as colheitas.  White Port: Made with white grapes, this increasingly popular style can be bottled young and fresh to preserve fruit flavours, or aged to bring out more savoury, nutty character. It is particularly good with tonic water.    How to Drink Port  Port is an extremely versatile wine that shouldn't be kept only for Stilton on Christmas Day. Tawnies in particular are great with all kinds of cheeses, charcuterie, and puddings, while young vintage styles have a great affinity with chocolate.  Image by Cheese at Leadenhall Port, especially white port, makes a superb cocktail ingredient.      About the author  Henry Jeffreys is an award-winning drinks writer based in London. He is a regular contributor to publications including the Spectator, Daily Telegraph, Decanter, JancisRobinson.com and Club Oenologique and has appeared on BBC Radio 4 and BBC Two. He is the author of several books including Empire of Booze, The Home Bar and Vines in a Cold Climate, which won Drink Book of the Year at the 2023 Fortnum & Mason Awards. In 2024, he launched the Intoxicating History podcast with Tom Parker Bowles.   https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/the-history-of-port https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/the-history-of-port Tue, 26 May 2026 04:25:45 Beer foam is often misunderstood, seen by some drinkers as little more than decoration or wasted beer. Yet from a brewing and sensory perspective, foam plays a fundamental role in how beer looks, smells and tastes. In this article, brewer, beer judge and Budvar Global Brand Ambassador Radim Zvánovec explores the science, tradition and service techniques behind great beer foam, from the proteins and hop compounds that stabilise it to the Czech pouring culture that treats foam as an essential part of the drinking experience itself.    Many consumers still see foam as something undesirable, maybe a trick to serve less beer for the same price. In many parts of the world, a beer with a thick, creamy head is still met with the familiar reaction: “Too much foam.” Or “Can you add Flake in it!?” Yet from a brewing and sensory perspective, the exact opposite is true. Good foam is one of the clearest indicators of beer quality.  A stable foam head reflects proper carbonation, clean glassware, healthy foam-positive proteins from malt, well-balanced brewing processes and correct pouring technique. It is not merely decoration sitting on top of the beer, but an integral part of the drinking experience itself. Foam influences aroma release, mouthfeel, flavour perception and even protects the beer from rapid oxidation during consumption.  “A beer without foam is like espresso without crema.”  Just as crema defines the texture, aroma and visual identity of espresso, foam plays a crucial role in how beer is perceived and enjoyed. In some beer cultures, particularly in the Czech Republic, foam is treated almost ceremonially, as a symbol of freshness, craftsmanship and respect for the beer itself.  Understanding beer foam means understanding beer quality. From raw materials and brewing science to dispense systems, glassware and pouring technique, foam represents the point where chemistry, physics and hospitality meet in a single glass.   The science behind beer foam  Beer foam is a complex colloidal structure formed primarily by foam-positive malt proteins, isomerised alpha acids from hops and polysaccharides, which together create a stabilising matrix around CO₂ bubbles. In practical terms, these compounds help trap gas within the beer and keep the foam dense, stable and creamy rather than thin and short-lived.  Stable foam is characterised by small, uniform bubbles, good elasticity and the ability to resist collapse over time. This is commonly measured using the NIBEM Foam Stability Test, which evaluates how long it takes for the foam head to collapse by a defined distance under controlled conditions. During the analysis, beer is poured in a standardised way and an electronic sensor monitors the decrease in foam height over time.  For drinkers, this science has a direct impact on the experience of the beer itself. Stable foam helps preserve aromas, softens carbonation and creates a smoother, creamier texture on the palate. A beer with poor foam stability can quickly feel flat, sharp or lifeless.  From a research perspective, specific hydrophobic proteins (such as LTP1) play a key role by binding at the gas-liquid interface and stabilising individual bubbles. In simple terms, these proteins gather around the bubbles and help stop the foam collapsing too quickly.  Isomerised alpha acids from hops interact with these proteins and strengthen the foam structure, while polysaccharides increase beer viscosity and slow foam breakdown. Together, these compounds help create the creamy, lasting foam associated with high-quality lager and well-poured draught beer. Minerals also play an important role, particularly metal ions such as calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺), which support the stability of the protein network.  The greatest negative impact on foam comes from lipids (fatty substances), detergent residues, ethanol content, yeast proteinase activity or improperly cleaned glassware. These factors disrupt the stabilising layer around the bubbles and lead to rapid foam collapse. Even tiny traces of grease or detergent can dramatically affect how foam behaves in the glass.  Foam is the result of a balance between beer composition, brewing technology and service quality. Any disruption to this balance is immediately reflected in foam stability and the overall sensory experience.    Wet foam vs dry foam  Not all beer foam is the same. Foam structure, texture and moisture content have a major impact on the drinking experience, flavour perception and overall beer quality.  Wet foam  Wet foam is dense, creamy, smooth and highly drinkable. The bubbles are very fine and tightly packed, creating a silky texture that integrates naturally with the beer. This type of foam is typical of properly poured Czech lager, especially when using side-pull Lukr taps.  Wet foam softens carbonation sharpness, enhances mouthfeel, protects aroma compounds and creates a smoother sensory experience. In practical terms, this means the beer can feel rounder, creamier and less aggressively fizzy, even when highly carbonated.  Because wet foam contains more liquid within its structure, it feels almost like a beer pillow rather than acting as a dry cap sitting on top of the beer.  Dry foam  Dry foam is lighter, airier and composed of larger, less stable bubbles. It often forms when beer is poured too aggressively, when carbonation is excessive or when the dispense system is not properly balanced. Dry foam tends to collapse more quickly and provides less protection for aroma and carbonation stability.  In sensory terms, dry foam can feel coarse, sharp, bitter and disconnected from the beer itself. Instead of contributing positively to texture and flavour balance, it may create a harsher drinking experience.    Why Czechs are so obsessed with foamy lagers  To many visitors, Czech beer culture can seem unusual at first glance. A freshly poured lager often arrives with a thick, creamy foam head that would be considered “too much foam” in many other countries. But in the Czech Republic, foam is not seen as wasted space. It is considered an essential part of the beer.  Czech lager is brewed specifically to support rich, stable and creamy foam. Soft water, decoction brewing, long cold maturation, Saaz hops and traditional lager yeast all contribute to foam stability and texture. The beer is therefore designed not only to taste good but also to pour beautifully.  Equally important is the Czech approach to beer service. In Czech pubs, pouring beer is traditionally viewed as a craft rather than simply filling a glass. Bartenders are trained to control flow, foam density, carbonation release and texture using side-pull Lukr taps and specific pouring techniques. The goal is to create “wet foam”.  “Foam is not the enemy of beer. Foam is part of the beer.” Images provided by Budweiser Budvar   Glassware: the overlooked quality factor  Glassware is one of the most underestimated factors in draught beer quality. The condition of the glass directly affects CO₂ release, foam stability and aroma perception. Microscopic scratches or contamination can lead to excessive bubbling and unstable foam.  Good cleaning is essential. Residual detergent, grease, lipstick or fats quickly destroy foam by disrupting the protein structure responsible for foam stability. Even tiny traces of grease from food or fingerprints can affect how foam behaves in the glass.  Both hand washing and professional glass washers can be effective if properly maintained and thoroughly rinsed.  Glass temperature also matters. Chilled glasses can benefit foam stability, but frozen glasses are not recommended, as ice crystals promote over-foaming and suppress aroma expression.   Don’t fear the foam!  Next time you are served a pint of lager, or any other style of beer, take a moment to appreciate the foam as something beautiful and essential to the experience. Because great beer deserves great foam.    About the author  Radim Zvánovec is Global Brand Ambassador at Budweiser Budvar, as well as a brewer and international beer judge. Originally from České Budějovice (Budweis) in the Czech Republic, he grew up surrounded by one of the world’s most celebrated beer cultures.  After many years working in hospitality, Radim developed a deeper appreciation for the craftsmanship behind beer, discovering that its apparent simplicity hides remarkable precision and care. This curiosity led him into brewing, beer education and sensory analysis.  https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/why-foam-matters-in-beer https://www.wsetglobal.com/knowledge-centre/blog/2026/why-foam-matters-in-beer Fri, 22 May 2026 14:06:37